Abstract
Background: Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have emerged as contaminants of public health concern because of their ability to interfere with hormonal regulation even at low concentrations, with packaged drinking water representing a potential route of human exposure.
Aim: This study determined the occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in bottled and sachet drinking water marketed in Rivers and Bayelsa States, Nigeria, and evaluated the associated human health risks.
Materials and Methods: Eighty packaged drinking water samples comprising 40 bottled and 40 sachet water samples were collected from major commercial centres in Rivers and Bayelsa States. Bisphenol A (BPA), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol (OP) were extracted using solid-phase extraction and quantified by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. Human exposure was evaluated using Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Chronic Daily Intake (CDI), Hazard Quotient (HQ), Hazard Index (HI) and Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR). Pearson correlation, Principal Component Analysis and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis were used to identify relationships and possible contamination sources.
Results: DEHP exhibited the highest detection frequency (91.3%), followed by DBP (85.0%) and BPA (76.3%). Sachet drinking water from Rivers State contained significantly higher concentrations of BPA (0.84 ± 0.13 μg/L), DBP (1.26 ± 0.18 μg/L), and DEHP (1.68 ± 0.24 μg/L) than bottled water and samples from Bayelsa State (p < 0.05). Hazard Index values ranged from 0.49 in Bayelsa bottled water to 1.26 among children consuming sachet water in Rivers State. Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk ranged from 3.84 × 10⁻⁶ to 2.08 × 10⁻⁵. Principal Component Analysis explained 81.6% of the total variance and identified plastic packaging materials and environmental contamination as the major sources of endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
Conclusion: Packaged drinking water marketed in Rivers State exhibited greater endocrine-disrupting chemical contamination and higher human health risks than comparable products in Bayelsa State. Continuous surveillance, stricter quality control during production and improved regulation of plastic packaging materials are necessary to minimise human exposure and safeguard public health.